Instructions: Choose the single best answer for each question unless stated otherwise. Answers are at the bottom of the document.
Section A - Science and IS research (Ch. 2)
Q1. Which of the following is NOT a required property of the scientific method?
- a) Replicability
- b) Falsifiability
- c) Consensus among all researchers
- d) Independence from subjective judgment
Q2. What is the correct order from observation to testable science?
- a) Phenomena → Variables → Constructs → Hypotheses
- b) Phenomena → Concepts → Constructs → Variables → Hypotheses
- c) Concepts → Phenomena → Variables → Propositions → Hypotheses
- d) Phenomena → Hypotheses → Constructs → Variables → Concepts
Q3. A hypothesis is best defined as:
- a) A mental representation of an observed phenomenon
- b) A connection between two concepts
- c) A testable relationship between variables
- d) A measurable property of a construct
Q4. The IS Design Science research cycle consists of which loops?
- a) Theory loop and Practice loop
- b) Environment loop and Knowledge base loop (with a central Design cycle)
- c) Induction loop and Deduction loop
- d) Data loop and Analysis loop
Q5. What distinguishes IS research as a “Design Science” from classical or social sciences?
- a) It only uses quantitative methods
- b) It combines science approaches (rigor, falsification) with engineering principles (prototyping, evaluation)
- c) It rejects the concept of falsifiability
- d) It focuses exclusively on building software artefacts
Section B - Research process (Ch. 3)
Q6. A research question phrased as “How does IT governance influence business value?” would most likely lead to:
- a) Exploratory research
- b) Explanatory research
- c) Descriptive research only
- d) Computational research
Q7. Deductive reasoning can be formally described as:
- a) Given a cause and an effect → induce a rule
- b) Given a rule and an effect → abduce a cause
- c) Given a rule and a cause → deduce the effect
- d) Given an observation → derive the simplest explanation
Q8. A researcher observes multiple cases and derives a general pattern. This is an example of:
- a) Deduction
- b) Abduction
- c) Induction
- d) Falsification
Q9. Abduction is associated with:
- a) Testing existing theories on new data
- b) Occam’s razor and educated guessing
- c) Moving from general laws to specific predictions
- d) Strict experimental control
Q10. Which reasoning mode is primarily concerned with building theoretical explanations?
- a) Exploration
- b) Rationalization
- c) Validation
- d) Operationalization
Q11. Which methodology strength is most associated with qualitative strategies?
- a) Generalisability
- b) Deductibility
- c) Explorability
- d) Repeatability
Q12. Which methodology strength is most associated with quantitative strategies?
- a) Complexity
- b) Explorability
- c) Generalisability
- d) Controllability
Q13. What distinguishes a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) from an ad hoc literature review?
- a) SLR uses only digital databases
- b) SLR is predefined, rigorous, documented, and repeatable
- c) Ad hoc reviews are more thorough
- d) SLR cannot be used to formulate research questions
Q14. In the conducting phase of an SLR, “backward search” means:
- a) Searching for articles published before a certain year
- b) Browsing references cited in the article of interest
- c) Reversing the inclusion/exclusion criteria
- d) Searching for retracted papers
Q15. “Forward search” in an SLR refers to:
- a) Searching for future research directions
- b) Browsing articles that cite the article of interest
- c) Adding new search terms iteratively
- d) Searching only the most recent year of publications
Section C - Theory (Ch. 4)
Q16. Which of the following is NOT a building block of a theory?
- a) Constructs
- b) Relationships
- c) Data collection instruments
- d) Justifications
Q17. A theory without stated boundaries is problematic because:
- a) It becomes too simple
- b) It is unfalsifiable
- c) It cannot have constructs
- d) It lacks any relationships
Q18. A Type III theory in IS (Prediction) is characterized by:
- a) No causal claims and no predictions
- b) Testable propositions but weak causal grounding
- c) Both strong causal explanations and testable propositions
- d) Prescriptions for constructing artefacts
Q19. Which theory type is most relevant to Design Science Research?
- a) Type I - Analysis
- b) Type III - Prediction
- c) Type IV - Explanation and Prediction
- d) Type V - Design and Action
Q20. A theory that says “what is, how, why, when, where, and what will be” corresponds to:
- a) Type II - Explanation
- b) Type III - Prediction
- c) Type IV - Explanation and Prediction
- d) Type V - Design and Action
Q21. Which of the following IS a theory?
- a) A dataset showing correlation between IT spending and revenue
- b) A list of 12 untested hypotheses about user adoption
- c) A system of constructs with justified relationships, testable propositions, and stated boundary conditions
- d) A detailed description of a single company’s IT implementation
Q22. The “Justifications” building block of a theory answers which question?
- a) “What are the constructs?”
- b) “How are they related?”
- c) “Why would this relationship exist?”
- d) “When does the theory apply?”
Section D - Qualitative research methods (Ch. 5a)
Q23. Reflexivity in interviewing refers to:
- a) The interviewer reflecting on their own bias
- b) The interviewee responding with what the interviewer wants to hear
- c) Using multiple interview rounds
- d) Recording the interview for later analysis
Q24. Which data collection technique is least affected by reflexivity?
- a) Semi-structured interviews
- b) Participant observation
- c) Documentation analysis
- d) Focus groups
Q25. In the coding process, “axial coding” refers to:
- a) Uncovering and labelling concepts from raw data
- b) Organizing concepts into causal relationships
- c) Identifying central categories
- d) Writing subjective reflections
Q26. The correct sequence of coding stages is:
- a) Selective coding → Axial coding → Open coding
- b) Open coding → Selective coding → Axial coding
- c) Axial coding → Open coding → Selective coding
- d) Open coding → Axial coding → Selective coding
Q27. “Transferability” in qualitative research is analogous to which quantitative concept?
- a) Reliability
- b) Internal validity
- c) External validity
- d) Construct validity
Q28. What distinguishes action research from a case study?
- a) Action research uses only quantitative data
- b) In action research, the researcher introduces changes/interventions and is the agent of change
- c) Case studies always involve multiple organizations
- d) Action research cannot contribute to scientific knowledge
Q29. Grounded theory is characterized by:
- a) Starting with a strong theoretical framework and testing it
- b) Inductively generating theory from systematically collected and analysed qualitative data
- c) Using only structured interviews
- d) Focusing exclusively on hypothesis testing
Q30. Which triangulation type involves using both interviews and document analysis?
- a) Triangulation across methods
- b) Triangulation across sources
- c) Triangulation across researchers
- d) Triangulation across theories
Q31. “Memoing” in qualitative research is:
- a) A formal statistical technique
- b) Subjective reflection by the researcher about observations and connections
- c) Sending memos to interview participants
- d) A type of content analysis
Q32. Discourse analysis focuses on:
- a) What is said (content only)
- b) How it is said (structure, framing, language use)
- c) Statistical frequency of words
- d) Only written communication
Section E - Quantitative research methods (Ch. 5b)
Q33. A confounder is a variable that:
- a) Mediates the relationship between independent and dependent variables
- b) Is related to both the independent and dependent variable and can create spurious relationships
- c) Moderates the strength of a relationship
- d) Is always included in the statistical model
Q34. “Company size” influences both “IT investment” and “company performance.” In this scenario, company size is a:
- a) Mediator
- b) Moderator
- c) Confounder
- d) Dependent variable
Q35. In full mediation, the direct relationship between the independent and dependent variable:
- a) Doubles in strength
- b) Drops to zero - everything goes through the mediator
- c) Becomes negative
- d) Remains unchanged
Q36. A moderator variable:
- a) Sits between the independent and dependent variable
- b) Changes the strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables
- c) Is always a confounder
- d) Cannot be measured
Q37. Which level of measurement has a meaningful zero point and allows relative comparisons?
- a) Nominal
- b) Ordinal
- c) Interval
- d) Ratio
Q38. Temperature in Celsius is an example of which measurement level?
- a) Nominal
- b) Ordinal
- c) Interval
- d) Ratio
Q39. Measurement reliability is influenced by:
- a) Systematic error
- b) Random error
- c) Both systematic and random error equally
- d) Neither type of error
Q40. What is the relationship between measurement reliability and validity?
- a) They are the same thing
- b) Validity is necessary for reliability
- c) Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity
- d) They are completely independent
Q41. In non-probability sampling, “snowball sampling” means:
- a) Selecting elements that are easy to reach
- b) A small initial group recruits additional participants
- c) Randomly selecting from predefined strata
- d) Systematically skipping every nth element
Q42. You want to test whether there is a difference in IT alignment scores between three groups of companies (small, medium, large). Which test is most appropriate?
- a) Independent samples t-test
- b) Paired samples t-test
- c) ANOVA
- d) Pearson correlation
Q43. ANCOVA extends ANOVA by:
- a) Adding more dependent variables
- b) Controlling for the effect of covariates/confounders
- c) Removing the need for random sampling
- d) Allowing categorical independent variables only
Q44. A paired samples t-test is used when:
- a) Comparing two independent groups at one time-point
- b) Comparing one group at two time-points
- c) Comparing more than two groups
- d) Testing correlation between two variables
Q45. Mixed ANOVA is appropriate when:
- a) You have one group measured at one time-point
- b) You have two or more independent groups measured at more than two time-points
- c) You want to test correlation only
- d) You have purely categorical outcome variables
Q46. Exploratory factor analysis is used to:
- a) Formally test a pre-specified factor structure
- b) Explore which observed variables cluster under latent dimensions without strong prior theory
- c) Run regression with latent variables
- d) Confirm hypotheses from a previous study
Q47. In a reflective latent construct model:
- a) The indicators cause changes in the latent construct
- b) The latent construct causes changes in all the indicators
- c) There is no relationship between indicators and the construct
- d) The indicators are directly observed
Q48. Structural equation modelling (SEM) is best described as:
- a) A type of exploratory factor analysis
- b) Regression with latent variables, measuring causal relationships between latent constructs
- c) A non-parametric test for ordinal data
- d) A sampling technique for large populations
Q49. The difference between a survey and a questionnaire is:
- a) There is no difference
- b) A survey covers a variety of topics; a questionnaire focuses on one construct or related set of constructs
- c) A questionnaire is always longer
- d) A survey cannot include Likert scales
Q50. Stratified random sampling involves:
- a) Selecting the most convenient participants
- b) Dividing the population into mutually exclusive strata and then randomly sampling from each
- c) Asking participants to recruit others
- d) Selecting every nth element from a list
Section F - Mixed methods and design science (Ch. 5c)
Q51. In mixed methods research, “meta-inference” refers to:
- a) The initial hypothesis before data collection
- b) The overall conclusion drawn from integrating conclusions from all methods used
- c) A statistical technique for combining p-values
- d) The literature review phase
Q52. Which is NOT a strength of mixed methods?
- a) Provides stronger evidence through convergence
- b) Can answer a broader range of research questions
- c) Is simpler and less resource-intensive than single-method research
- d) Qualitative data adds meaning to quantitative results
Q53. Design Science in IS research is primarily about:
- a) Only conducting surveys
- b) Creating innovative artefacts that contribute new scientific evidence
- c) Purely theoretical work with no practical output
- d) Replicating natural science experiments
Section G - Research philosophy
Q54. The research paradigm pillar that asks “How is reality defined?” is called:
- a) Epistemology
- b) Ontology
- c) Methodology
- d) Theoretical perspective
Q55. Epistemology is concerned with:
- a) How reality is defined
- b) How we know something and what counts as knowledge
- c) Which tools to use for data collection
- d) The practical consequences of ideas
Q56. A positivist researcher would most likely:
- a) Use case studies and grounded theory
- b) Emphasize the researcher’s subjective experience
- c) Use large samples, experiments, and surveys with a detached, value-free stance
- d) Focus on deconstructing power structures
Q57. The interpretivist paradigm holds that:
- a) Reality is objective and fixed
- b) Reality is socially constructed through culture and language
- c) Only quantitative data is valid
- d) The researcher should be completely detached
Q58. Critical realism is described as bridging positivism and interpretivism because:
- a) It rejects both approaches entirely
- b) It holds that reality is objective but layered, with deeper hidden mechanisms causing surface phenomena
- c) It uses only mixed methods
- d) It focuses solely on postmodern critique
Q59. Which philosophical identity is nicknamed “The Architect”?
- a) Positivism
- b) Interpretivism
- c) Critical Realism
- d) Pragmatism
Q60. The key insight of the “research onion” model is that:
- a) Only the outermost layer matters
- b) Data collection and analysis are at the center, influenced by all surrounding layers (philosophy, strategy, methodology, time horizon)
- c) Philosophy has no influence on methods
- d) All research must use the same onion structure
Answer key
Section A - Science and IS research
- Q1: c) - Consensus is not required; science requires replicability, independence, precision, and falsifiability
- Q2: b) - Phenomena → Concepts → Constructs → Variables → Hypotheses
- Q3: c) - A hypothesis is a testable relationship between variables
- Q4: b) - Environment loop and Knowledge base loop with a central Design cycle
- Q5: b) - IS Design Science combines science approaches with engineering principles
Section B - Research process
- Q6: b) - “How” questions lead to explanatory research
- Q7: c) - Deduction: given a rule and a cause → deduce the effect
- Q8: c) - Observing cases and deriving patterns is induction (specific → general)
- Q9: b) - Abduction is associated with Occam’s razor and educated guessing
- Q10: b) - Rationalization is about building theoretical explanations
- Q11: c) - Qualitative strategies are strong in explorability
- Q12: c) - Quantitative strategies are strong in generalisability
- Q13: b) - SLR is predefined, rigorous, documented, and repeatable
- Q14: b) - Backward search = browsing references cited in the article of interest (finding older sources)
- Q15: b) - Forward search = browsing articles that cite the article of interest (finding newer sources)
Section C - Theory
- Q16: c) - Data collection instruments are not a building block of a theory; the four blocks are constructs, relationships, justifications, and boundaries
- Q17: b) - Without boundaries, a theory is unfalsifiable
- Q18: b) - Type III has testable propositions but weak causal grounding
- Q19: d) - Type V (Design and Action) is about prescriptions for constructing artefacts
- Q20: c) - Type IV (EP) covers what is, how, why, when, where, and what will be
- Q21: c) - A theory requires constructs, justified relationships, testable propositions, and boundary conditions
- Q22: c) - Justifications answer “Why would this relationship exist?”
Section D - Qualitative methods
- Q23: b) - Reflexivity = the interviewee responds with what the interviewer wants to hear
- Q24: c) - Documents were not created for the research, so they don’t suffer from reflexivity
- Q25: b) - Axial coding organizes concepts into causal relationships
- Q26: d) - Open coding → Axial coding → Selective coding
- Q27: c) - Transferability is the qualitative analogue of external validity
- Q28: b) - In action research, the researcher introduces changes and is the agent of change
- Q29: b) - Grounded theory inductively generates theory from qualitative data
- Q30: b) - Using different data sources (interviews + documents) is triangulation across sources
- Q31: b) - Memoing is subjective reflection by the researcher
- Q32: b) - Discourse analysis focuses on how something is said
Section E - Quantitative methods
- Q33: b) - A confounder is related to both variables and can create spurious relationships
- Q34: c) - Company size is a confounder influencing both IT investment and performance
- Q35: b) - In full mediation, the direct relationship drops to zero
- Q36: b) - A moderator changes the strength of the relationship
- Q37: d) - Ratio level has a meaningful zero and allows relative comparisons
- Q38: c) - Celsius is interval (0 °C does not mean absence of temperature)
- Q39: b) - Reliability is influenced by random error
- Q40: c) - Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity
- Q41: b) - Snowball sampling = initial group recruits others
- Q42: c) - ANOVA tests differences between more than two groups
- Q43: b) - ANCOVA controls for covariates/confounders
- Q44: b) - Paired samples t-test compares one group at two time-points
- Q45: b) - Mixed ANOVA = multiple independent groups measured at multiple time-points
- Q46: b) - EFA explores clustering of observed variables under latent dimensions
- Q47: b) - In a reflective model, the latent construct causes changes in indicators
- Q48: b) - SEM is regression with latent variables
- Q49: b) - A survey covers many topics; a questionnaire focuses on one construct or related set
- Q50: b) - Stratified random sampling divides into strata and randomly samples each
Section F - Mixed methods and design science
- Q51: b) - Meta-inference is the overall integrated conclusion
- Q52: c) - Mixed methods are actually MORE resource-intensive, not simpler
- Q53: b) - Design Science creates innovative artefacts contributing to the body of knowledge
Section G - Research philosophy
- Q54: b) - Ontology asks “How is reality defined?”
- Q55: b) - Epistemology is about how we know and what counts as knowledge
- Q56: c) - Positivists use large samples, experiments, surveys; detached and value-free
- Q57: b) - Interpretivism holds that reality is socially constructed
- Q58: b) - Critical realism: reality is objective but layered with hidden mechanisms
- Q59: d) - Pragmatism is “The Architect”
- Q60: b) - The research onion shows data collection at the center, influenced by all surrounding layers